Applying the Salutogenic Model in the Czech Armed Forces: Developing a Methodology for Evaluating Resilience and Health Outcomes
Keywords:
salutogenic model; service members; soldiers; female soldiers; mental and physical health
Abstract
This article applies the salutogenic model to the specific context of the Czech Armed Forces, focusing on soldiers and female soldiers. The main objective is to evaluate the relevance and applicability of Aaron Antonovsky’s salutogenic model among service members, with emphasis on mental and physical health outcomes. The theoretical part offers a structured summary, compilation, and comparison of relevant scholarly sources, addressing core indicators of mental and physical resilience in military settings. The methodological section presents the development and adaptation of a diagnostic tool originally introduced by Sedláková and Kovářová (2025), modified for use with personnel of the Czech Army. This tool is tailored to the occupational demands and stress factors experienced by soldiers. The result is a practical, research-based methodology that allows for the evaluation of key components of the salutogenic model—comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness—among members of the armed forces. The findings are intended to support both academic understanding and practical implementation of mental health and resilience assessment in military environments.
References
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[24] Hunt, Morton. 2000. Dějiny psychologie. Praha: Portál.
[25] Kalina, Kamil. 2003a. Psychologie a psychopatologie závislostí. Praha: Grada.
[1] Kalina, Kamil. 2003b. Psychická odolnost: Teorie a aplikace. Praha: Grada.
[26] Kalina, Kamil. 2010. "Význam osobnostních charakteristik a motivace pro vojenskou profesi." Psychologie v armádě 22 (1): 34–42.
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[28] King, Lynda A., et al. 1998. "Resilience-Recovery Factors in PTSD Among Female and Male Vietnam Veterans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (2): 420–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.420.
[29] Křivohlavý, Jiří. 2001. Psychologie zdraví. Praha: Portál.
[30] Lechner, Lenneke, and Catherine Bolman. 2016. "Health Promotion in Military Settings: A Salutogenic Model." In The Handbook of Salutogenesis, edited by Maurice B. Mittelmark et al., 123–131. Cham: Springer.
[31] Lyk-Jensen, Sven V., Chris D. Weatherall, and Peter W. Jepsen. 2016. "The Effect of Military Deployment on Mental Health." Economics & Human Biology 23: 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2016.09.005.
[32] Maddi, Salvatore R. 1987. "Hardiness Training at Illinois Bell Telephone." Human Resource Management 26 (2): 261–265.
[33] Milliken, Charles S., Jennifer L. Auchterlonie, and Charles W. Hoge. 2007. “Longitudinal Assessment of Mental Health Problems among Active and Reserve Component Soldiers Returning from the Iraq War.” JAMA 298(18): 2141–2148. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.18.2141.
[34] Nilsson, B., L. Holmgren, B. Stegmayr, and G. Westman. 2012. “Sense of Coherence—Stability over Time and Relation to Health, Disease, and Psychosocial Changes in a General Population: A Longitudinal Study.” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 41(4): 392–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034940210164920.
[35] Nock, Matthew K., et al. 2013. “Suicide among Soldiers: A Review of Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors.” Psychiatry 76(2): 97–125. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2013.76.2.97.
[36] Paley, Blair, Patricia Lester, and Cheryl Mogil. 2013. “Family Systems and Ecological Perspectives on the Impact of Deployment on Military Families.” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 16(3): 245–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0138-y.
[37] Pietrzak, Robert H., et al. 2009. “Psychological Resilience and Postdeployment Social Support Protect against Traumatic Stress and Depressive Symptoms in Soldiers Returning from Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom.” Depression and Anxiety 26(8): 745–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20558.
[38] Rodríguez-Romo, Gloria, Jaime Acebes-Sánchez, Susana García-Merino, Marta Garrido-Muñoz, Cristina Blanco-García, and Ignacio Diez-Vega. 2023. “Physical Activity and Mental Health in Undergraduate Students.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(1): 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010195.
[39] Rose, Suzanna, Jonathan Bisson, and Simon Wessely. 2002. “Psychological Debriefing for Preventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD000560. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000560.
[40] Rusu, Corneliu, et al. 2014. “Prevalence of Mental Disorders in the Canadian Armed Forces.” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 59(9): 507–514.
[41] Schnyder, Ulrich, Sabina Büchi, Tom Sensky, and Rolf Klaghofer. 2000. “Antonovsky’s Sense of Coherence: Trait or State?” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 69(6): 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1159/000012414.
[42] Seal, Karen H., et al. 2007. “Bringing the War Back Home: Mental Health Disorders among 103,788 US Veterans Returning from Iraq and Afghanistan Seen at Department of Veterans Affairs Facilities.” Archives of Internal Medicine 167(5): 476–482. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.5.476.
[43] Sedláková, Lucie, and Béata Kovářová. 2025. Movement as the Key to Mental Well-being: The Impact of Physical Activity on Postpartum Mothers’ Mental Health. Article under review.
[44] Sinclair, Robert R., and Thomas W. Britt, eds. 2013. Building Psychological Resilience in Military Personnel: Theory and Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13709-000.
[45] Southwick, Steven M., et al. 2005. “The Psychobiology of Depression and Resilience to Stress: Implications for Prevention and Treatment.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1: 255–291. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143948.
[46] Suedfeld, Peter. 1997. “Health Consequences of War-Related Stress in South African Veterans.” South African Medical Journal 87(11): 1531–1534.
[47] Tedeschi, Richard G., and Lawrence G. Calhoun. 1996. “The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the Positive Legacy of Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 9(3): 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305.
[48] Wiens, Kiffer G., Anisha Bhattarai, Arlene Dores, Pedram Pedram, Jacqueline V. A. Williams, Andrew G. M. Bulloch, and Scott B. Patten. 2020. “Mental Health among Canadian Postsecondary Students: A Mental Health Crisis?” The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 65(1): 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743719874178.
[49] Wilson, James P., Matthew Jones, Nicola T. Fear, Lisa Hull, Matthew Hotopf, Simon Wessely, and Roberto J. Rona. 2009. “Is Previous Psychological Health Associated with the Likelihood of Iraq War Deployment? An Investigation of the 'Healthy Warrior Effect'.” American Journal of Epidemiology 169(11): 1362–1369. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp044.
[50] Zbranek, Tomáš, Radek Urban, and Petr Macek. 2018. “Význam salutogenetického přístupu v prevenci duševních poruch u vojáků.” Vojenské zdravotnické listy 87(3): 145–153.
[2] Almeida, David M., David Marcusson-Clavertz, David E. Conroy, Juyeon Kim, Matthew J. Zawadzki, Martin J. Sliwinski, and Joshua M. Smyth. 2020. "Everyday Stress Components and Physical Activity: Examining Reactivity, Recovery, and Pileup." Journal of Behavioral Medicine 43 (1): 108–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00062-z.
[3] Antonovsky, Aaron. 1979. Health, Stress, and Coping. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[4] Antonovsky, Aaron. 1987. Unraveling the Mystery of Health: How People Manage Stress and Stay Well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
[5] Bartone, Paul T. 1999. "Resilience under Military Operational Stress: Can Leaders Influence Hardiness?" Military Psychology 11 (3): 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_10.
[6] Bélanger, Mathieu, France Gallant, Isabelle Doré, Jennifer L. O'Loughlin, Marie-Pierre Sylvestre, Pascale Abi Nader, Roxane Larouche, Katie Gunnell, and Catherine M. Sabiston. 2019. "Physical Activity Mediates the Relationship between Outdoor Time and Mental Health." Preventive Medicine Reports. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2019.101006.
[7] Benešová, Ivana, and Martin Franěk. 2017. "Vojenské mise a návrat do civilního života: Psychologická perspektiva." Československá psychologie 61 (2): 115–128.
[8] Boe, Ole, and Hallvard Bang. 2012. "The Big Five Personality Traits in the Norwegian Military: Leadership Roles and Team Performance." Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 33: 165–169. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00747.
[9] Bonanno, George A. 2004. "Loss, Trauma, and Human Resilience: Have We Underestimated the Human Capacity to Thrive after Extremely Aversive Events?" American Psychologist 59 (1): 20–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.20.
[10] Bystřický, Tomáš. 2024. Posttraumatická stresová porucha u vojáků po návratu ze zahraniční operace. Zlín: Univerzita Tomáše Bati ve Zlíně, Fakulta logistiky a krizového řízení.
[11] Clark, Hannah. 2017. "‘Imbalance’: Mental Health in Higher Education." Humboldt Journal of Social Relations 39: 346–348.
[12] Demers, Anne. 2011. "When Veterans Return: The Role of Community in Reintegration." Journal of Loss and Trauma 16 (2): 160–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2010.519281.
[13] Doré, Isabelle, Vincent Thibault, Marie-Pierre Sylvestre, Catherine M. Sabiston, Jennifer L. O'Loughlin, Pascale Abi Nader, Alexandre J. Romain, Jennifer Brunet, and Mathieu Bélanger. 2022. "Physical Activity Motives Have a Direct Effect on Mental Health." Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports 32 (8): 1258–1267. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14174.
[14] Eriksson, Monica, and Bengt Lindström. 2005. "Validity of Antonovsky’s Sense of Coherence Scale: A Systematic Review." Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 59 (6): 460–466. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2003.018085.
[15] Eriksson, Monica, and Bengt Lindström. 2006. "Antonovsky’s Sense of Coherence Scale and Its Relation with Quality of Life: A Systematic Review." Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 4 (1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2005.041616.
[16] Frankl, Viktor E. 2006. A přesto říci životu ano. Praha: Cesta.
[17] Galson, Steven K. 2009. "Mental Health Matters." Public Health Reports 124 (2): 189–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490912400202.
[18] Griffith, James. 2002. "The Role of Resilience in the Retention of Military Personnel." Armed Forces & Society 28 (1): 61–81.
[19] Greenberg, Neil, et al. 2010. "Peer-Supported Stress Management for Military Personnel." Occupational Medicine 60 (8): 635–639.
[20] Hernández-Pizarro, Helena M., and Laia Maynou. 2024. "The Effects of Physical Activity Prescription on Mental Health: Evidence from Primary Care." Economics & Human Biology 55: 101432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2024.101432.
[21] Hofreiter, Josef. 2018. "Psychická odolnost jako klíčový faktor výcviku vojáků." Vojenské rozhledy 27 (2): 28–34.
[22] Hoge, Charles W., et al. 2004. "Combat Duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, Mental Health Problems, and Barriers to Care." New England Journal of Medicine 351 (1): 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa040603.
[23] Hourani, Laurel L., et al. 2011. Building Psychological Resilience in Military Personnel: Theory and Practice. Military Medicine 176 (1): 1–8.
[24] Hunt, Morton. 2000. Dějiny psychologie. Praha: Portál.
[25] Kalina, Kamil. 2003a. Psychologie a psychopatologie závislostí. Praha: Grada.
[1] Kalina, Kamil. 2003b. Psychická odolnost: Teorie a aplikace. Praha: Grada.
[26] Kalina, Kamil. 2010. "Význam osobnostních charakteristik a motivace pro vojenskou profesi." Psychologie v armádě 22 (1): 34–42.
[27] Kanehara, Atsushi, Maki Umeda, and Norito Kawakami. 2015. "Barriers to Mental Health Care in Japan Survey: Results from the World Mental Health Japan Survey." Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 69 (9): 523–533. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.12267.
[28] King, Lynda A., et al. 1998. "Resilience-Recovery Factors in PTSD Among Female and Male Vietnam Veterans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (2): 420–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.420.
[29] Křivohlavý, Jiří. 2001. Psychologie zdraví. Praha: Portál.
[30] Lechner, Lenneke, and Catherine Bolman. 2016. "Health Promotion in Military Settings: A Salutogenic Model." In The Handbook of Salutogenesis, edited by Maurice B. Mittelmark et al., 123–131. Cham: Springer.
[31] Lyk-Jensen, Sven V., Chris D. Weatherall, and Peter W. Jepsen. 2016. "The Effect of Military Deployment on Mental Health." Economics & Human Biology 23: 193–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2016.09.005.
[32] Maddi, Salvatore R. 1987. "Hardiness Training at Illinois Bell Telephone." Human Resource Management 26 (2): 261–265.
[33] Milliken, Charles S., Jennifer L. Auchterlonie, and Charles W. Hoge. 2007. “Longitudinal Assessment of Mental Health Problems among Active and Reserve Component Soldiers Returning from the Iraq War.” JAMA 298(18): 2141–2148. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.298.18.2141.
[34] Nilsson, B., L. Holmgren, B. Stegmayr, and G. Westman. 2012. “Sense of Coherence—Stability over Time and Relation to Health, Disease, and Psychosocial Changes in a General Population: A Longitudinal Study.” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 41(4): 392–397. https://doi.org/10.1080/14034940210164920.
[35] Nock, Matthew K., et al. 2013. “Suicide among Soldiers: A Review of Psychosocial Risk and Protective Factors.” Psychiatry 76(2): 97–125. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.2013.76.2.97.
[36] Paley, Blair, Patricia Lester, and Cheryl Mogil. 2013. “Family Systems and Ecological Perspectives on the Impact of Deployment on Military Families.” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 16(3): 245–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-013-0138-y.
[37] Pietrzak, Robert H., et al. 2009. “Psychological Resilience and Postdeployment Social Support Protect against Traumatic Stress and Depressive Symptoms in Soldiers Returning from Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom.” Depression and Anxiety 26(8): 745–751. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20558.
[38] Rodríguez-Romo, Gloria, Jaime Acebes-Sánchez, Susana García-Merino, Marta Garrido-Muñoz, Cristina Blanco-García, and Ignacio Diez-Vega. 2023. “Physical Activity and Mental Health in Undergraduate Students.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20(1): 195. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010195.
[39] Rose, Suzanna, Jonathan Bisson, and Simon Wessely. 2002. “Psychological Debriefing for Preventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD000560. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000560.
[40] Rusu, Corneliu, et al. 2014. “Prevalence of Mental Disorders in the Canadian Armed Forces.” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 59(9): 507–514.
[41] Schnyder, Ulrich, Sabina Büchi, Tom Sensky, and Rolf Klaghofer. 2000. “Antonovsky’s Sense of Coherence: Trait or State?” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 69(6): 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1159/000012414.
[42] Seal, Karen H., et al. 2007. “Bringing the War Back Home: Mental Health Disorders among 103,788 US Veterans Returning from Iraq and Afghanistan Seen at Department of Veterans Affairs Facilities.” Archives of Internal Medicine 167(5): 476–482. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.5.476.
[43] Sedláková, Lucie, and Béata Kovářová. 2025. Movement as the Key to Mental Well-being: The Impact of Physical Activity on Postpartum Mothers’ Mental Health. Article under review.
[44] Sinclair, Robert R., and Thomas W. Britt, eds. 2013. Building Psychological Resilience in Military Personnel: Theory and Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13709-000.
[45] Southwick, Steven M., et al. 2005. “The Psychobiology of Depression and Resilience to Stress: Implications for Prevention and Treatment.” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1: 255–291. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143948.
[46] Suedfeld, Peter. 1997. “Health Consequences of War-Related Stress in South African Veterans.” South African Medical Journal 87(11): 1531–1534.
[47] Tedeschi, Richard G., and Lawrence G. Calhoun. 1996. “The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the Positive Legacy of Trauma.” Journal of Traumatic Stress 9(3): 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305.
[48] Wiens, Kiffer G., Anisha Bhattarai, Arlene Dores, Pedram Pedram, Jacqueline V. A. Williams, Andrew G. M. Bulloch, and Scott B. Patten. 2020. “Mental Health among Canadian Postsecondary Students: A Mental Health Crisis?” The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 65(1): 30–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743719874178.
[49] Wilson, James P., Matthew Jones, Nicola T. Fear, Lisa Hull, Matthew Hotopf, Simon Wessely, and Roberto J. Rona. 2009. “Is Previous Psychological Health Associated with the Likelihood of Iraq War Deployment? An Investigation of the 'Healthy Warrior Effect'.” American Journal of Epidemiology 169(11): 1362–1369. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp044.
[50] Zbranek, Tomáš, Radek Urban, and Petr Macek. 2018. “Význam salutogenetického přístupu v prevenci duševních poruch u vojáků.” Vojenské zdravotnické listy 87(3): 145–153.
Published
2025-11-23
How to Cite
Sedláková, L., Pracná, J., Crha, P., & Kroupová, S. (2025). Applying the Salutogenic Model in the Czech Armed Forces: Developing a Methodology for Evaluating Resilience and Health Outcomes. Review of Applied Socio-Economic Research, 30(2), 106-116. https://doi.org/10.54609/reaser.v30i2.805
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